Block lattice cryptocurrency
- Eur/usd analysis forexprostr
- 2 Окт, 2012
- 1
DAGs are vulnerable to certain types of attacks. The dawn of DAGs Bitcoin was the first cryptocurrency to see the light of day, back in Introducing decentralized peer-to-peer blockchains, the technology took the world by storm. For a few years, blockchain ledgers were the defining characteristic of any cryptocurrency.
But that all changed with the official launch of IOTA. Though still in development, Tangle is eventually intended to work as a distributed ledger similar to blockchains, but with a unique twist. A trader who makes a transaction must confirm two random previous transactions. Each of these two will have validated two other transactions before, and so on. The end result is not that transactions are grouped into blocks and stored in a blockchain. Rather, it is a stream of individual transactions entangled together.
After the launch of IOTA, many non-blockchain protocols followed suit. However, most of them invented their own consensus algorithms to protect the network from double-spending attacks. Each of them puts into practice a different consensus algorithm. Nano, formerly called Raiblocks, implements the so-called Block-lattice. With Block-lattice, every user gets their own chain to which only they can write. Additionally, everyone holds a copy of all of the chains. The problem of Block-lattice is that it is vulnerable to penny-spending attacks.
These involve inflating the number of chains that nodes must track by sending negligible amounts of cryptocurrency to empty wallets. DAG vs blockchain Some see DAGs as an alternative that combats the shortcomings of blockchain technology, but it would be false to claim that one technology is better than the other. In the world of cryptocurrency, people often try to build hype around the technology they invested in. While a DAG network does perform better than blockchains in some aspects, it is crucial to consider the advantages and disadvantages of both.
Because no mining takes place, there are no mining fees associated with making DAG transactions. Therefore, the DAG structure can make transactions reach consensus parallelly, which greatly improves the speed of processing transactions, that is, TPS. It can be seen that through the DAG structure, the consensus efficiency and transaction throughput of the system can be improved, meanwhile the problem of low scalability can be solved.
These researches use DAG structure to build a blockchain that can run stably for a long time. It shows that the DAG structure can replace the traditional chain structure to show better performance. In the DAG-lattice structure, each node account has its own account chain, and only the node itself can add transactions to its own account chain. So, the transactions between accounts can be added to the blockchain asynchronously and parallelly.
Moreover, in the lattice DAG structure, the node can prune the transactions from the account chain of the node out of communication and only keep their latest transactions without affecting the system consensus. This architecture is general and suitable for highway and urban road. In this architecture, each node has its own account chain. The main contributions to this paper are as follows.
The lightweight nature is reflected in two aspects. One is the small amount of calculation. In this paper, the PBFT consensus algorithm is used, which is not discriminatory in computing power. The other is the small storage capacity. Vehicles with limited storage capacity store pruned blockchain instead of full blockchain. The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes research on the architecture introducing blockchain technology in VANETs and the current using of the DAG-lattice structure; Section 3 introduces the relevant components of the architecture proposed in this paper; Section 4 introduces the proposed lightweight blockchain architecture in detail; Section 5 describes the malicious attack scenarios that may occur in this architecture and analyzes how this paper deals with these malicious attacks; Section 6 verifies the proposed architecture; finally, the full paper is summarized in Section 7.
Related Work 2. These studies mainly include two categories. In the research case where the nodes in VANETs do not participate in the blockchain, the blockchain is deployed as a storage service in nodes or platforms which maintain the operation of the blockchain outside the VANETs. Rahman et al. In this framework, the blockchain provides storage as a service. Xu et al. However, the blockchain runs on nodes outside the VANETs as a distributed storage environment, which can only guarantee the security of the data in the storage process and cannot improve the security of the data in the communication process through blockchain technology.
Therefore, researchers have proposed some architectures in which the nodes in the VANETs participate in the blockchain. Dorri et al. The nodes in the architecture are clustered, and only the cluster heads CHs are responsible for managing the blockchain and executing its core functions. In this mechanism, the IV-TP data are managed through the blockchain. Leiding et al.
In this system, each entity has an Ethereum address, and RSU provides Ethereum-based applications which have been deployed to the Ethereum blockchain. Sharma et al. Block-VN includes controller nodes, miner nodes, and ordinary nodes. The ordinary nodes can send service request messages to miner nodes vehicles or controller nodes. Jiang et al. According to different application purposes, the blockchain is divided into 5 types.
The various blockchains do not communicate with each other, and they also have 5 different types of blockchain nodes. The current architecture researches are considered from the perspective of application. The use of blockchain can solve some security issues, privacy, and so on.
Moreover, the proposed architectures mainly study that the blockchain runs on which entities, what information is stored on the entities, and how the entities interact to ensure security in the VANETs. However, they do not consider the high dynamics of the VANETs and the problems caused by the use of blockchain under the condition of limited node resources. The first to use this structure was the Nano project [ 22 ]. In this project, each account has its own blockchain.
The sending transaction and receiving transaction are separated, which can provide almost instantaneous transaction speed and unlimited scalability. Moreover, the transaction tracks the account balance, so that blockchain can be pruned without affecting the performance and security. In view of the limitations of current blockchain technology and the scalability requirement of having millions of TPS in the future, the JURA team proposed the decentralized JURA [ 23 ], in which novel data structure Fusus, PoU consensus mechanism, verifiable random function technology, dynamic monitored and distributed sharding, and artificial intelligence is used.
The essence of Fusus is the DAG-lattice structure. The transaction records of accounts form the lattice, and the transaction records of each account are organized by DAG structure. However, some researchers have used the DAG-lattice structure in a noncryptocurrency environment. Zhou et al. The Components of V-Lattice This section defines the basic components of V-Lattice from four aspects: node, account, transaction, and ledger. Node The node is software that runs on entities in the blockchain network.
It follows the relevant protocols of the blockchain and can run all or part of the blockchain-related operations, including generating transaction, verifying transaction, transaction consensus, and storing transaction. When a blockchain node is running on a moving vehicle, the mobility of the vehicle causes the vehicle to frequently join or leave the blockchain network.
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Instead, with the block lattice architecture, each user possesses their own blockchain that operates asynchronously to every other blockchain. This transforms a shared data structure i. Blockchain Scalability One significant problem that blockchains currently face is that, in their current form, they do not scale.
For example, the Bitcoin blockchain is only able to process approximately 7 transactions per second. This is in contrast to existing centralized payment systems such as VISA, who have the capacity to process roughly transactions per second. Thus, numerous solutions have been proposed in addressing blockchain scalability. One such proposal is to implement second layer scaling solutions to blockchain. These second layer scaling solutions include, for example, the lightning network for Bitcoin, or the Raiden Network in the case of Ethereum.
Users can subsequently update the state of their ledgers asynchronously, allowing for near-instant transactions with minimal overhead. The genesis balance is fixed following The initial genesis account balance can never be exceeded by the sum of all of the account chains in the network. The send transaction mentioned earlier is part of the two-part transaction system of Nano. Every transaction requires a send transaction and a receive transaction. This is a crucial component of the system because nodes only need to store the latest block for each account chain without sacrificing validation of correctness.
Block Lattice Visualization, Image from Hackernoon Nano identifies several advantages to the two-phase transaction system including sequencing incoming transfers that are asynchronous, enabling small transactions that can fit in UDP packets , improving ledger pruning, and isolating settled from unsettled transactions. The latency of the network and asynchronous nature of transactions means there is no standard process for agreeing on which transaction arrived first if an account chain receives multiple transactions from different accounts.
Nano approaches this by employing a design-time agreement where the receiving account chain retains control over deciding which incoming transaction arrived first. Moreover, transactions are differentiated as either settled or non-settled. Settled means a receive block has been generated and the balance encoded while non-settled means the balance of the receiver has not been updated yet.
Senders of transactions need to create a send block, which is immutable after confirmation. Funds are deducted from the account chain balance once the send block is broadcast to the network and are considered pending until the receiving account chain creates a receive block for the transaction. A transaction is considered verified once if the block does not exist in the account chain already either send or receive , the account owner signs the transaction, the previous block is the head block of the account chain, and the computed hash meets the PoW requirement.
However, PoW is used in Nano solely to mitigate spam and not for reaching consensus. Image Credit — Nano Whitepaper Account chains are initiated by sending an open transaction to the genesis account chain. Balances are maintained by measuring the balances of the send block and the preceding block. Subsequently, high volumes of blocks are easily downloaded. Account-chain holders are assigned a representative as part of the DPoS voting system on conflicting transactions.
Due to this design, it may seem easy to launch a Sybil attack where a malicious entity obtains multiple account chains. However, voting is balance-weighted, meaning that the costs of performing a Sybil attack directly correlate to the total stake in the network i. Image Credit — Nano Whitepaper In summary, the block-lattice structure enables a near-instant transaction, zero fees, and high scalability. The novel architecture is impressive and has some clear advantages; however, the lack of fees is part of a broader incentive design problem that likely is hindering its adoption.
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This is in contrast to existing centralized payment systems such as VISA, who have the capacity to process roughly transactions per second. Thus, numerous solutions have been proposed in addressing blockchain scalability. One such proposal is to implement second layer scaling solutions to blockchain. These second layer scaling solutions include, for example, the lightning network for Bitcoin, or the Raiden Network in the case of Ethereum. Other proposals to deal with blockchain scalability issues have been to completely remove blockchains themselves.
The reason being that the blockchain architecture is an inherently unscalable one. Each block in a blockchain can only store a limited amount of data, and also the average confirmation time for a Bitcoin block confirmation can be quite lengthy. This novel architecture is designed not only to achieve decentralized peer-to-peer payment, but to do so in an incredibly rapid manner.
The send transaction mentioned earlier is part of the two-part transaction system of Nano. Every transaction requires a send transaction and a receive transaction. This is a crucial component of the system because nodes only need to store the latest block for each account chain without sacrificing validation of correctness.
Block Lattice Visualization, Image from Hackernoon Nano identifies several advantages to the two-phase transaction system including sequencing incoming transfers that are asynchronous, enabling small transactions that can fit in UDP packets , improving ledger pruning, and isolating settled from unsettled transactions. The latency of the network and asynchronous nature of transactions means there is no standard process for agreeing on which transaction arrived first if an account chain receives multiple transactions from different accounts.
Nano approaches this by employing a design-time agreement where the receiving account chain retains control over deciding which incoming transaction arrived first. Moreover, transactions are differentiated as either settled or non-settled. Settled means a receive block has been generated and the balance encoded while non-settled means the balance of the receiver has not been updated yet.
Senders of transactions need to create a send block, which is immutable after confirmation. Funds are deducted from the account chain balance once the send block is broadcast to the network and are considered pending until the receiving account chain creates a receive block for the transaction. A transaction is considered verified once if the block does not exist in the account chain already either send or receive , the account owner signs the transaction, the previous block is the head block of the account chain, and the computed hash meets the PoW requirement.
However, PoW is used in Nano solely to mitigate spam and not for reaching consensus. Image Credit — Nano Whitepaper Account chains are initiated by sending an open transaction to the genesis account chain. Balances are maintained by measuring the balances of the send block and the preceding block. Subsequently, high volumes of blocks are easily downloaded.
Account-chain holders are assigned a representative as part of the DPoS voting system on conflicting transactions. Due to this design, it may seem easy to launch a Sybil attack where a malicious entity obtains multiple account chains. However, voting is balance-weighted, meaning that the costs of performing a Sybil attack directly correlate to the total stake in the network i.
Image Credit — Nano Whitepaper In summary, the block-lattice structure enables a near-instant transaction, zero fees, and high scalability. The novel architecture is impressive and has some clear advantages; however, the lack of fees is part of a broader incentive design problem that likely is hindering its adoption.
Further, Nano is well-suited for the future materialization of micropayments. Despite its promise, Nano suffers from a notable incentive problem. Therefore, the lack of fees means there is no incentive for on-chain activity, such as mining in PoW or staking in PoS.
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